INDIA/History

Earliest Times. Indian history dates back at least 4,500 years. About 2500 B.C., a civilization began to flourish in the Indus Valley in what is now Pakistan and western India. Ruins of the ancient cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (also spelled Moen jo Daro) tell much about this civilization. The ruins show that the people had many conveniences. For example, drainage systems ran from the houses into brick-lined sewers. The people lived in brick homes several stories high. The cities of this civilization had large public baths and well-planned streets that formed city blocks.

The people of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro had systems of counting, measuring, weighing, and writing. They dug ditches and canals around the cities to irrigate their farms. No one knows what happened to these early people.

Invasion of the Aryans. Around 1500 B.C., migrating bands of fair-skinned people arrived in India. They came from central Asia through the mountain passes of the Hindu Kush. These warlike people called themselves Aryans, a Sanskrit word meaning nobles or owners of land. They were shepherds, and counted their wealth in herds of cattle and sheep. The Aryans became the ancestors of many present-day northern Indians.

The Aryans who came to India found the dark-skinned Dravidians living there in flourishing cities. The Dravidians traded in cotton goods, gold, pearls, and pepper. Many moved ahead of the invading Aryans into southern India. They became the ancestors of the people who live in southern India today.

Early Aryan Civilization. The influence of the Aryans gradually extended over all India. But the Aryans never actually conquered the southern part of the country. In their first thousand years in India, the Aryans perfected the Sanskrit language and a way of writing it. They also set up social barriers between themselves and the Dravidians, whom they considered beneath them. These barriers limited social contacts between the two groups.

Throughout early India, each village governed itself. A headman or a council of respected elders managed village affairs. The villagers farmed the land and supplied their own needs. They had little contact with people in other communities because travel was difficult.

The great religious teacher Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 B.C.) founded Buddhism at about this time. His followers called him Buddha (Enlightened One). The Buddhist religion spread rapidly throughout India during the 200's B.C.

Conquest by Alexander the Great. In 326 B.C., Alexander the Great invaded India and conquered the northwestern region. When Alexander left India in 325 B.C., some of his generals remained as satraps (governors) of the conquered land. Indian armies soon forced most of them to leave. The few who stayed became officials in the governments of Indian kings.

The Maurya Empire arose after Alexander's death. The empire took its name from that of its founder, Chandragupta Maurya (298 B.C.).. It spread until it included almost all of India and part of central Asia. Emperor Asoka (232 B.C.) became the most famous Maurya ruler. He conquered many neighboring tribes and took their lands to enlarge his own empire. Asoka made his capital at what is now Patna in the state of Bihar.

Asoka, a Hindu, converted to Buddhism. He waged no more wars, and helped spread Buddhism throughout India and other countries. Records of his rule still stand in the form of great stone pillars. He built these pillars in every important city, and had Buddhist beliefs carved on them. Today, India's state emblem shows the top of one of the pillars.

The Golden Age in India. About A.D. 120, the Scythians from central Asia conquered northern India. Their kings ruled as the Kushan dynasty (a series of rulers from the same family). Native Indian emperors of the Gupta dynasty ruled in northern India from 320 to about 500. Each Gupta ruler enlarged the empire. The Guptas finally ruled a territory that included all northern India and parts of Afghanistan. It extended as far south as the Vindhya Mountains. The Gupta period became the golden age of a rebirth of Sanskrit culture. India ranked as a center of art, learning, and medicine. Beautiful cities arose, universities were founded, and a great civilization flourished.

Another great civilization thrived in southern India around this time. Its rulers included the Andhras, Pallavas, and other Hindu-Buddhist dynasties. These southern Indians did much traveling on nearby seas. They spread Indian culture into Southeast Asia.

Period of Invasions. From A.D. 450 until the late 1400's, many peoples invaded India. First, the Huns brought their armies into India from central Asia. Muslims came from Arabia during the early 700's, and from Persia and Afghanistan during the 1000's. A Muslim sultanate (rule by a sultan) was established in Delhi in 1206, and lasted until 1526. In 1398, the Muslim conqueror Tamerlane and his Tartar army from central Asia raided India and captured Delhi for a short time.

The Mogul Empire. Babar, a Muslim ruler who had lost his small kingdom of Samarkand in central Asia, invaded India in 1526. He was victorious at the Battle of Panipat, defeating the forces of the sultan of Delhi. Babar then established the Mogul Empire and made himself emperor. Babar was related on his mother's side to the Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan. On his father's side, he was related to Tamerlane. Babar conquered much of northern India.

Babar's grandson, Akbar, became the greatest Mogul emperor. Akbar came to the throne in 1556. He reigned 49 years, and conquered all northern India and Afghanistan. He extended his rule as far south as the Godavari River. Akbar, a Muslim, ruled wisely and won the loyalty of Hindus by his religious tolerance.

During the 1600's, fierce attacks by the Maratha people of west-central India endangered the Mogul Empire. Trouble in the empire developed during the rule of Aurangzeb, who became emperor in 1658. Aurangzeb was a narrow-minded and sometimes harsh ruler. He imposed a special tax on Hindus, and destroyed many of their temples. Aurangzeb also tried to force non-Muslims to convert to Islam. Partly as a result of Aurangzeb's rule and costly wars, the Mogul Empire began breaking up soon after his death.

The Coming of the Europeans. The Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama reached Calicut (also called Kozhikode) in 1498. During the early 1500's, Portuguese traders seized ports on the western coast of India. The Portuguese hoped to control the sea routes of the rich East Indies trade with Europe. Dutch, English, and French traders fought the Portuguese, and then fought each other, for control of the Asian trade.

The East India Company was formed in England in 1600 with a royal charter from Queen Elizabeth I. During the 1600's, the company established important trading posts and forts at Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras. The Portuguese lost many of their Indian trading posts, partly because of poor management. A French trading company established a base at Pondichery (now Pondicherry). A Dutch firm built up control of trade in Java and the Spice Islands.

The Rise of the East India Company. The European powers gained little in India as long as strong rulers held the Mogul Empire together. But soon after Emperor Aurangzeb died in 1707, the Maratha tribespeople conquered central and western India. The army of Nadir Shah, a Persian ruler, successfully raided northern India. The Sikhs, a religious group, founded their own kingdom in that region.

By the mid-1700's, there was no longer a strong central power in India. The East India Company took advantage of this situation and gained control over much of India. At first, the company's agents merely competed with other European traders. Later, they developed great political power by various means. For example, the agents obtained the right to collect taxes. They also turned Indian princes against each other. The company waged several wars against princes who refused to give in peacefully to its rule.

The East India Company became the leading power in India in 1757. That year, Robert Clive led troops of the company to victory over Indian forces in the Battle of Plassey. In 1774, Warren Hastings became the company's first governor-general of India.

Between 1800 and 1857, the East India Company waged wars against Afghanistan, Burma, Nepal, and the area that included Punjab and Kashmir. The East India Company used Indian and British troops to win more territory.

The Sepoy Rebellion. In 1857, the Indian people rebelled against the East India Company. Indian soldiers, called sepoys, started the rebellion when British officers ordered them to bite open cartridges greased with cow or hog fat. The religious beliefs of the soldiers forbade them to obey the order. The Hindu soldiers could not eat beef, and the Muslim troops were forbidden to eat pork. Deep discontent caused the rebellion to spread. The British defeated most of the rebels by the summer of 1858. The rebellion ended in 1859.

The rebellion failed because it lacked leadership and support. But it came near enough to success to alarm the agents of the company. The rebellion made it clear to Great Britain that the East India Company's rule of India must end.

British Rule. In 1858, the British government took over India from the East India Company. Parliament received direct control over all land governed by the company. This area became known as British India.

In the rest of India, most of the local princes agreed to accept British supervision. Those who had supported the company during the Sepoy Rebellion signed treaties with Great Britain. Other Indians were made princes of various territories in exchange for the support they promised the British government. The parts of India under this indirect control by Great Britain were called the Indian States. A few small areas of coastal land remained French or Portuguese colonies until the mid-1900's.

Queen Victoria of Great Britain appointed a viceroy to head the Indian government. The viceroy served directly under the secretary of state for India. Through this cabinet member, the viceroy was responsible to the British Parliament. The Indian Councils Act of 1861 provided the viceroy with a council of five British members, also appointed by the queen. In 1876, Victoria became empress of India.

Indian troops under British officers defeated Afghanistan in the Second Afghan War (1878-1881). This victory established India's northern boundary. India also defeated Burma in the Third Burmese War (1885). As a result, all of Burma became a province of India.

The British built railroad, telegraph, and telephone systems in India. They enlarged the Indian irrigation systems. The British also developed a system of food relief that helped the Indian people during famines.

Local Administration. British India consisted of 11 provinces. Great Britain placed most of these provinces under the local rule of governors. The queen appointed the governors, and always named Britons rather than Indians to the post. The governors were responsible to the viceroy.

In the Indian States, the princes ruled with absolute power over their internal affairs. Each state also had a resident, a British official appointed by the viceroy. The residents took little part in internal state affairs. But the residents and the British government controlled the states' relations with each other and with other countries. The Indian princes pledged loyalty to Great Britain and supported British interests in wartime. In return, their treaties with Great Britain guaranteed their position as rulers. The British also pledged to aid the princes in case of any rebellions.

Movement Toward Independence. An independence movement began in India after the Sepoy Rebellion. It grew rapidly during the 1870's, and Indian newspapers began criticizing the government angrily. The Indian people accused the British of holding them back unfairly. For example, Indians complained that the British failed to give them equal job opportunities in the government service.

In 1885, Indians established the Indian National Congress with British approval. The congress served as a political debating society where Indians could discuss their problems. Members of the organization came from every part of India, and from many religious groups and castes. The congress lost favor with the British when it began striving for self-government.

Many Muslims feared the Indian National Congress because the great majority of its members were Hindus. The Muslims believed that if the congress became powerful, it would keep them politically weaker than the Hindus. In 1906, they organized the Muslim League. The league worked chiefly to improve the position of Muslims in India.

Indian violence against the British began during the early 1900's. Bombings and shootings occurred in protest against such British actions as the division of the state of Bengal. As a result of the violence, the British government passed the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909. These reforms enlarged the legislative councils to include elected Indians for the first time. The reforms also enlarged the viceroy's advisory council to include an Indian.

India After World War I. India supported Great Britain in World War I (1914-1918). In return, Britain promised India a major role in its own government. In 1919, the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms greatly increased the powers of the provincial legislatures. The British also increased the number of Indians that could be elected to the central legislature. However, the viceroy and the governors could still veto any bill.

The Indians did not believe the reforms gave them enough powers, and their violent protests increased. As a result, the British government restricted their civil liberties, including trial by jury. The discontent of Indians reached a climax after the Amritsar Massacre on April 13, 1919. A British general ordered his troops to fire on a restless, unarmed crowd. The shots killed nearly 400 Indians and wounded at least 1,200.

After the Amritsar Massacre, Indian history became an almost constant struggle for independence. Various individual Indians and political groups caused increased disturbances to advance the movement. The British passed several more constitutional reforms, which failed to satisfy the growing demands for self-rule.

Gandhi's Leadership. Mohandas K. Gandhi gained fame as the greatest leader of the Indian independence movement. Gandhi, a former lawyer, devoted himself to the movement after the Amritsar Massacre. In 1920, he became the leader of the Indian National Congress. The congress had grown into India's most important political organization.

Gandhi persuaded the congress to adopt his program of nonviolent disobedience against the British. This program included nonpayment of taxes and refusing to go to British schools and courts. Gandhi and his followers also defied British rule by such nonviolent means as sitting in the streets. Many of his followers gave up well-paying jobs that involved cooperating with the British. The independence movement had begun as a small program led by a few educated Indians. Gandhi changed it into a mass movement of millions of Indians.

New Constitution. Continuing civil disobedience during the 1920's and early 1930's led Britain to give the Indian people more political power. The Government of India Act of 1935 created a new Indian constitution. It gave the provincial legislatures control over legislation in the provinces. It provided that each governor form his or her cabinet from members of the majority party in the provincial legislature. The Government of India Act also provided for all cabinet members to be Indians. But the viceroy and the governors kept their veto power over all legislation. The central government kept control of most of India's finances.

Muslim Activities. During the 1930's, the Muslim League greatly increased its political activities. The league feared that the various plans for an independent India would give Hindus too much power over Muslims. The league also believed that the Indian National Congress would keep Muslims from taking active roles in the provincial governments.

In 1934, Muhammad Ali Jinnah became leader of the Muslim League. Under his leadership, the league won a number of seats in the provincial legislatures, and its membership increased rapidly. In 1937, Jinnah declared that Muslims could not expect fair play under a government planned by the Indian National Congress. In 1940, he demanded that an entirely separate Muslim country be carved out of India. The name Pakistan (Land of the Pure) was soon widely used for the proposed nation.

World War II. India declared war on Nazi Germany on Sept. 3, 1939, the same day that Great Britain did. Indians supported Britain's fight against the Nazi dictatorship. But they did not give Britain their all-out help because the British had not given independence to India. The British promised India independence after the war. But members of the Indian National Congress demanded immediate self-government instead, and they refused to take part in the war effort.

After Germany conquered France in 1940, Indians became more willing to help Britain. Indian troops fought with great courage and skill in various desert campaigns in Africa and the Middle East. The nation's factories expanded rapidly and produced war supplies for Britain and other Allied nations. India also provided the Allies with large amounts of coffee, jute, mica, tea, textiles, and timber.

In 1941, Japan entered the war on the side of Germany. The next year, Japanese troops captured Burma, India's neighbor to the east. The Burma Road, a vital route to China, also fell to the Japanese (see BURMA ROAD). The Allies then built air bases in India and flew supplies to the Chinese to help them fight the Japanese. By the end of 1943, India had become a huge supply base and training center for Allied armies and air forces. That year, the Allies began to build a new road to connect northeastern India with China. The Japanese invaded eastern India in March 1944, but British and Indian forces soon drove them back. The new road to China, which became known as the Stilwell Road, was completed in January 1945.

During World War II, Britain tried to reach an agreement with Indian leaders on independence. In 1942, Britain proposed that, after the war, India would become an independent dominion in the British Commonwealth of Nations. All Indian political groups rejected the plan. The Indian National Congress opposed the delay in independence. The Muslim League said the plan did not meet its demands for a divided India.

The viceroy of India, Viscount Wavell, met with representatives of the various Indian groups in 1945. He called the conference after several riots that supported India's demand for independence. Wavell asked the Indians to cooperate with the Allies until an agreement could be reached on a permanent form of government for India. The conference broke down after the Muslim League and the Indian National Congress failed to settle their old differences.

In June 1945, India was among the 50 nations that signed the charter forming the United Nations. World War II ended in September 1945.

Independence. Early in 1946, Great Britain offered independence to India whenever Indian leaders could agree on a form of government. British officials held several meetings with Indian leaders, but these conferences ended in failure. Representatives of the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League still could not settle their differences.

The Muslim League then declared Aug. 16, 1946, as Direct Action Day to establish the separate Muslim nation of Pakistan. On August 17, a bloody riot between Hindus and Muslims took place in Calcutta. Similar riots later occurred throughout India. In 1947, Indian and British leaders agreed to partition (divide) the country into India and Pakistan. They saw no other way to end the violence between Hindus and Muslims.

India became an independent nation within the British Commonwealth of Nations on Aug. 15, 1947. Pakistan had become independent the day before. More bloodshed followed the partition. More than 10 million people became refugees as Muslims fled from India to Pakistan and Hindus and Sikhs fled from Pakistan to India.

At first, a few of the states ruled by princes remained outside India. But shortly afterward, their princes agreed to give up their rights as rulers. In return, they received annual payments from the Indian government. Pakistan claimed the northern state of Kashmir because most of the people there were Muslims, and invaded the state. The invasion caused Kashmir's Hindu ruler to make his state a part of India for protection against Pakistan. India and Pakistan fought over Kashmir until 1949, when the United Nations arranged a cease-fire.

Mohandas K. Gandhi, leader of the long struggle for independence, was shot to death in 1948. Gandhi had urged love for all people, including poor people in lower castes. The assassin, a member of a high Hindu caste, hated Gandhi for his tolerance toward Muslims.

A constituent assembly drew up a new constitution for India and governed the country during its first few years. Jawaharlal Nehru, a close associate of Gandhi in the independence movement, served as prime minister. In November 1948, the constituent assembly adopted the new constitution. The constitution declared that India was an independent, democratic republic. The constitution went into effect on Jan. 26, 1950. That day became one of India's national holidays, Republic Day.

The New Republic. India's first general election was held in 1951 and 1952. The Congress Party, headed by Nehru, won by a huge majority.

In 1951, India began its first five-year plan to expand industry and raise living standards. Many countries sent India aid. Agricultural production increased, and the government expanded industry. School enrollment rose sharply, and malaria was almost wiped out. New laws took land from prosperous landowners and helped poor workers purchase the land they farmed.

In 1954, France gave India its territories of Karikal (now Karaikal), Mahe (now Mahe), Pondichery (now Pondicherry), and Yanaon (now Yanam). Residents of the areas had demanded union with India.

In 1956, India reduced the number of its states from 27 to 14. The changes gave most of India's major language groups their own states. In 1960, Bombay was divided into two new states, Gujarat and Maharashtra, giving India 15 states. Nagaland was formed in 1963, and a 17th state, Haryana, was created in 1966, when Punjab was divided. Himachal Pradesh was formed in 1970. Manipur, Meghalaya, and Tripura were created in 1971. Sikkim became India's 22nd state in 1975. Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh became states in early 1987.

For years after becoming independent, India urged Portugal to give up its last three small colonies in India. But Portugal refused. In 1961, Indian troops invaded the colonies--Damao (now Daman), Diu, and Goa. They quickly defeated the Portuguese forces. The Indian government made Daman, Diu, and Goa into a single territory, In mid-1987, Goa was made India's 25th state. Daman and Diu remained a territory.

Neutralism and War. India adopted a policy of noninvolvement in the Cold War between Communist and democratic nations. India did not join the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, an alliance that existed from 1954 to 1977, because of the nation's neutrality and fear of involvement in international struggles.

Border disputes between India and China erupted into armed conflict in 1959 and 1962. In 1962, Chinese forces drove into India. The United States, Canada, and Britain sent arms to India. By the end of 1962, China had pulled back, and a cease-fire took effect.

The Chinese invasion shocked most Indians. Most of the Indian people had counted on their neutral policy to avoid an attack. After the invasion, India built up its defenses. Defense spending used up much of the nation's funds and delayed its development programs.

India After Nehru. Prime Minister Nehru died in 1964. Lal Bahadur Shastri, a member of Nehru's cabinet, succeeded him. In 1965, the Kashmir dispute led to fighting along the India-Pakistan border. In 1966, Shastri and President Muhammad Ayub Khan of Pakistan agreed to withdraw their troops from the borders. The withdrawal did not apply to Kashmir. Shastri died shortly after signing the agreement. Indira Gandhi, Nehru's daughter, became the first woman prime minister of India in 1966.

Mrs. Gandhi took office during widespread unrest because of severe food shortages, unemployment, and other problems. Her Congress Party suffered great losses in the 1967 national election, but maintained control of the government. In 1969, some members of the Congress Party rejected Mrs. Gandhi's leadership and formed the Congress (Opposition) Party. Her supporters made up the Congress (Ruling) Party. Parliamentary elections were held in 1971, and candidates of the Congress (Ruling) Party won a majority of the seats.

In 1971, civil war broke out in Pakistan, and millions of East Pakistani refugees fled into India. India assisted East Pakistan in the fight against West Pakistan. West Pakistan was defeated in December, and East Pakistan became the independent nation of Bangladesh.

In June 1975, a court found Mrs. Gandhi guilty of using illegal practices during her parliamentary campaign of 1971. But Mrs. Gandhi refused to resign from office. Her government declared a state of emergency. Hundreds of Mrs. Gandhi's political opponents were arrested, and the government imposed censorship over the press. The government said that its actions were needed to prevent internal disorders. Parliament also passed legislation that legalized the actions for which Mrs. Gandhi had been found guilty. In November 1975, the Supreme Court of India overturned her conviction. In 1976, the government passed laws that greatly increased the powers of Parliament and reduced the powers of courts and other government agencies.

In 1977, the government ended its censorship of the press and released some political prisoners from jail. But in parliamentary elections held in 1977, Mrs. Gandhi lost her seat in Parliament and her Congress (Ruling) Party lost control of the government to the Janata Party, a coalition of several parties. Morarji R. Desai of the Janata Party became prime minister. Mrs. Gandhi formed the opposition Congress-I Party. The I in the party's name stands for Indira. Disputes among members of the coalition soon weakened and split the Janata Party. Desai resigned as prime minister in July 1979. New parliamentary elections were held in January 1980. The Congress-I Party won the elections, and Mrs. Gandhi won a seat in Parliament and again became prime minister.

Recent Developments. In 1983, heavy fighting broke out between Hindus and Muslims in the state of Assam. The mainly Hindu Assamese opposed a government decision to allow Bengali-speaking Muslims, who had immigrated illegally from Bangladesh, to vote in state elections. The Assamese feared the Bengalis would gain political control of the state if allowed to vote. The Indian government limited the immigrants' voting rights in 1985, but periodic conflicts have continued.

In December 1984, a major industrial disaster took place at Bhopal, in central India. Poisonous gas leaked from an American plant owned by the Union Carbide Corporation. More than 2,800 people died as a result of the leak, and at least 20,000 were injured.

Many of India's Sikhs have demanded increased political control of their home state of Punjab. From the 1980's to the early 1990's, some Sikhs carried out acts of violence or terrorism as part of the movement. In mid-1984, Indian government troops launched an attack against armed Sikhs who had occupied the Golden Temple complex in Amritsar. The temple is the main center of Sikh devotion. On October 31, Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated by two Sikh members of her security force.

After Mrs. Gandhi's assassination, the Congress-I Party chose Rajiv Gandhi--her son--as its head. As party head, Rajiv succeeded his mother as prime minister. The Congress-I Party won parliamentary elections held in December 1984, and Rajiv Gandhi remained prime minister. In 1989, however, the party lost its majority in Parliament, and Rajiv Gandhi resigned as prime minister. A coalition of political parties called the National Front formed a government, and Vishwanath Pratap Singh of the National Front became prime minister.

In the late 1980's, Muslim groups in the Indian part of Kashmir staged protests against Indian rule. In 1990, the protests turned violent, and many people were killed in clashes with Indian military forces. The violence continued in the early and mid-1990's.

Also in 1989 and 1990, violence between Hindu and Muslim Indians erupted in a dispute over a mosque (Muslim house of worship) in Ayodhya in the state of Uttar Pradesh. Hindus say that a Muslim ruler had built the mosque in the 1500's on the site of the birthplace of Rama, a Hindu god. Hindus want to build a temple on the site of the mosque. In December 1992, Hindus destroyed the mosque. Violence then broke out in many areas of India and in Pakistan and Bangladesh.

In November 1990, Singh resigned as prime minister. Chandra Shekhar of the Janata Party (Socialist) succeeded Singh as prime minister. Shekhar resigned in March 1991, and new elections were held in June. In the course of the election campaign, Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated, and P. V. Narasimha Rao became head of the Congress-I Party. In the elections, Congress-I won the most seats in Parliament, and Rao became prime minister.