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THE RIVER NILE IN EGYPT

Nile River is the longest river in the world. It flows for 4,145 miles (6,671 kilometers) through northeast Africa. The Nile rises near the equator and flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile irrigates about 6 million acres (2.4 million hectares) of land in Egypt and about 23/4 million acres (1.1 million hectares) in Sudan. 
The Nile Valley and the Nile Delta rank among the world's most fertile farming areas. Until 1968, water from the Nile deposited fertile silt (particles of soil) in the valley and on the delta, where the Nile flows into the Mediterranean. The Nile also flooded certain areas every summer. In 1968, the Aswan High Dam at Aswan, Egypt, began operating. This dam ended the annual floods and trapped the Nile's silt in Lake Nasser, behind the dam. Without the deposits of silt, Egyptian farmers had to use more artificial fertilizers on their soil. But the high dam and other dams built during the 1900's generate electricity and provide a steady flow of water for irrigation. 
The course of the Nile.
The Nile flows generally northward throughout its course. Its southernmost source is the Ruvironza River in Burundi. Lake Victoria ranks as the Nile's largest source. The Nile flows through the Sudd, a vast swamp in southern Sudan, where high temperatures cause about half of the water to evaporate. 
The Nile is called the White Nile between the Sudd and Khartoum, Sudan. At Khartoum, the Blue Nile from Ethiopia joins the White Nile. North of Khartoum, the river is called simply the Nile. The Atbara River, which is another chief source of the Nile, drains into it in Sudan, about 175 miles (282 kilometers) north of Khartoum. 
About 70 percent of the Nile's water comes from the Blue Nile. The flow of water in the Blue Nile and the Atbara varies greatly. Flooding by these rivers caused the annual floods of the Nile in Egypt. 
North of Cairo, Egypt, the Nile divides into separate channels in the Nile Delta. The delta has some swampy land and salty lakes, as well as highly fertile soil. 
The Nile Valley and Nile Delta make up a total of about 3 percent of Egypt's area. Almost all Egyptian farms lie in this densely populated region. Water from the Nile enables farmers in the valley and delta to raise various crops the year around. The chief winter crops, in order of area planted, include clover, wheat, and beans and other vegetables. The main summer crops are cotton, corn, rice, and millet. Cotton is Egypt's most important crop financially.

MT.EVEREST - THE TALLEST MOUNTAIN IN THE WORLD

Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world. It rises about 51/2 miles (8.9 kilometers) above sea level. It is one of the mountains that make up the Himalaya, on the frontiers of Tibet and Nepal, north of India. 
Surveyors disagree on the exact height of Mount Everest. A British government survey in the middle 1800's set the height at 29,002 feet (8,840 meters). The 1954 Indian government survey set the present official height at 29,028 feet (8,848 meters). But a widely used unofficial figure is 29,141 feet (8,882 meters). 
Mount Everest was named for Sir George Everest (1790-1866), a British surveyor-general of India. Tibetans call Mount Everest Chomolungma. Nepalese call the mountain Sagarmatha. 
Many climbers have tried to scale Mount Everest since the British first saw it in the 1850's. Avalanches, crevasses, and strong winds have combined with extreme steepness and thin air to make the climb difficult. On May 29, 1953, Sir Edmund Hillary of New Zealand and Tenzing Norgay, a Nepalese Sherpa tribesman, became the first men to reach the top. They were members of a British expedition led by Sir John Hunt. It left Kathmandu, Nepal, on March 10, 1953, and approached the mountain from its south side--which had been called unclimbable. As the climbers advanced up the slopes, they set up a series of camps, each with fewer members. The last camp, one small tent at 27,900 feet (8,504 meters), was set up by Hillary and Tenzing Norgay, who reached the summit alone. 
In 1956, a Swiss expedition climbed Mount Everest twice. The expedition also became the first group to scale Lhotse, the fourth highest peak in the world and one of the several summits that make up the Mount Everest massif (the main part of a mountain range). 
In 1963, Norman G. Dyhrenfurth led a United States expedition that climbed Mount Everest. On May 1, James W. Whittaker, accompanied by Nepalese guide Nawang Gombu, became the first American to reach the top of the mountain. He climbed to the summit from the south. Thomas F. Hornbein and William F. Unsoeld, members of the same expedition, became the first people to scale the difficult west ridge. They reached the top on May 22. 
On September 24, 1975, Dougal Haston and Doug Scott became the first climbers to reach the top of Mount Everest by climbing the mountain's southwest face. Haston and Scott were part of a British expedition. On May 10, 1980, two members of a Japanese expedition, Takashi Ozaki and Tsuneo Shigehiro, became the first people to reach the top from the north. 
On May 5, 1988, two expeditions reached the top of Mount Everest from opposite sides for the first time. The climbing teams consisted of members from China, Japan, and Nepal. A team of three began in Nepal and climbed the mountain's south face. A team of eight began its climb of the north face in Tibet. 
Some Sherpa tribesmen claim a creature that they call the Yeti, or Abominable Snowman, lives around Mount Everest. However, climbers have not seen it.

THE TAJ MAHAL

Taj Mahal, is one of the most beautiful and costly tombs in the world. The Indian ruler Shah Jahan ordered it built in memory of his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal, who died in 1629. The tomb stands at Agra in northern India. About 20,000 workers built it between about 1630 and 1650. 
According to tradition, the Taj Mahal was designed by a Turkish architect. It is made of white marble and rests on a platform of red sandstone. At each corner of the platform stands a slender minaret (prayer tower). Each tower is 133 feet (40.5 meters) high. The building itself is 186 feet (56.7 meters) square. A dome covers the center of the building. It is 70 feet (21.3 meters) in diameter and 120 feet (36.6 meters) high. Passages from the Muslim holy book, the Koran, decorate the outside along with inlaid floral patterns. A central room contains two cenotaphs (monuments). Visitors can see the monuments through a carved alabaster screen. The bodies of Shah Jahan and his wife lie in a vault below. The tomb stands in a garden.

THE LEANING TOWER OF PISA

Leaning Tower of Pisa is a bell tower at Pisa, Italy. It is famous for leaning 141/2 feet (4.4 meters) out of line when measured from the seventh story. It inclines because its foundation was built on unstable soil. Construction of the tower began in 1173 and ended between 1360 and 1370. The ground beneath the tower first started to sink after the first three stories were built. 
The tower, or campanile, is part of a complex of three buildings--a baptistery, a church, and the bell tower. Together the three structures form the Cathedral of Pisa, one of the world's most beautiful building groups. While most cathedrals in Europe combine the baptistery, church, and tower in a single building, the Italians frequently separated them, as at Pisa. Built during the Romanesque period, the three buildings are noted for their colorful marble and decorative arches. 
The tower is 51 feet (15.5 meters) in diameter and about 180 feet (55 meters) tall. The walls are 13 feet (4 meters) thick at the base and from 6 to 7 feet (1.8 to 2.1 meters) thick at the top. Fifteen arches surround the tower on the ground floor, and 30 arches encircle each of the next six stories. The top story, which houses the bells, has 12 arches. An inner staircase of almost 300 steps leads to the top. In 1990, the tower was closed for repairs. At that time, its lean had been increasing an average of 1/20 of an inch (1.3 millimeters) per year. Engineers hope to stabilize the tower's foundation and straighten it slightly to prevent it from eventually collapsing. By 1994, their efforts had straightened the tower's lean about 2/5 of an inch (1 centimeter). No date for the reopening of the tower was scheduled.

THE SEVILLE CATHEDRAL

Seville is one of the leading centers of Spanish art, literature, and education. The city is also called Sevilla. Two of Spain's greatest painters, Diego Velazquez and Bartolome Murillo, were born in Seville. Two famous operas, Carmen and The Barber of Seville, are set in the city. Legend says that Don Juan lived in Seville. The legend of Don Juan provided material for many writers and composers. The University of Seville dates back to 1502. 
The city lies 60 miles (97 kilometers) northeast of Cadiz on the Guadalquivir River, in an area of vineyards and orange groves. A great wall with 64 towers once surrounded the city, and its remains still stand. Moors lived in Seville for hundreds of years. Moorish influence shows in the city's network of small, shaded streets and in the whitewashed, balconied houses built around courtyards and fountains. 
Seville's greatest building is its cathedral, started in 1402 and finished in 1519. It stands on the site of a Moorish mosque, and is one of Europe's largest church structures. Only St. Peter's in Rome and the basilica in Lourdes, France, are larger. Some people think Christopher Columbus was buried in Seville's cathedral. But the Dominican Republic also claims to be his burial place. Seville's emblem is the Giralda, a Muslim minaret that is part of the city's cathedral. The Giralda stands over 300 feet (91 meters) high. It was built in the 1100's.

THE ANGEL FALLS

Angel Falls is the highest waterfall in the world. It drains into the Churun River in eastern Venezuela. Angel Falls has a total height of 3,212 feet (979 meters). Its longest unbroken drop is 2,648 feet (807 meters). 
Angel Falls plunges down a cliff in a highland area called La Gran Sabana. This region has many huge, colorful mesas (flat-topped hills) with sandstone surfaces. Grasslands and tropical rain forests cover much of the mesas. Some of the mesas are more than 2,500 feet (760 meters) high. There are many steep cliffs in the area. Angel Falls is located on the Auyan-Tepui mountain, which rises 8,400 feet (2,560 meters) above sea level. 
The waterfall is named for Jimmy Angel, an American pilot. Angel became the first known white person to see the falls, when he flew over it in 1935. He was searching for gold in the area. Today, small planes carry tourists over Angel Falls and its surroundings.

THE ALPS RANGE

Alps are the largest mountain system in Europe. The snow-capped peaks and sheltered, peaceful valleys of the Alps are among Europe's most spectacular sights. 
The Alps stretch across south-central Europe in a broad arc. The mountains begin near the Mediterranean Sea and form a border between France and Italy. The Alps then extend northward and eastward through northern Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, southern Germany, Austria, and Slovenia. The mountains form a chain about 660 miles (1,060 kilometers) long and cover an area of about 80,000 square miles (210,000 square kilometers). The broadest part of the Alps is about 160 miles (260 kilometers) wide and extends across Switzerland between Germany and Italy. The highest Alpine peak, Mont Blanc, rises 15,771 feet (4,807 meters) on the border between France, Italy, and Switzerland. Other famous mountains in the Alps include Monte Rosa, which rises 15,203 feet (4,634 meters), and the Matterhorn, which reaches 14,692 feet (4,478 meters). Both stand on the Swiss-Italian border. 
The Alps form a major barrier between central and southern Europe. Few people made the difficult trip through the mountains until the Romans gained control of the Alps between 58 and 15 B.C. and built roads through several Alpine passes. The roads allowed communication and trade between the peoples on either side of the Alps. Today, modern railroads and highways enable people to travel easily through the mountains. People come to view the magnificent scenery and take part in such sports as mountain climbing and skiing. 
How the Alps were formed.
Geologists believe a large sea once covered what is now the Alpine region. More than 100 million years ago, the land masses north and south of this sea began to move closer together. The great pressure placed on the seabed forced it to gradually fold so that great ridges and valleys formed. Rock that once lay deep below the seabed was pushed to the top of ridges. The highest parts of the Alps include such rocks as gneiss, granite, and schist, which were formed by heat and pressure deep within the earth. Many Alpine ranges consist chiefly of limestone that also formed in the seabed. Most of the Alps had taken shape by about 15 million years ago. 
Glaciers occupied valleys high in the Alps from about 2 million years ago until about 10,000 years ago. As these glaciers moved downhill, they gouged the earth and rock, creating U-shaped valleys. Other geologic features visible in the Alps include cirques and cols. Cirques are bowl-shaped hollows near the peak of a mountain. A col is a high pass between two cirques. A hanging valley is a small valley that empties into a larger and lower valley. A stream flowing through a hanging valley may create a waterfall. 
The Alpine glaciers also moved earth and rock that had collected along the edges and top of the ice. As the ice melted, rock debris piled up along the glacier's path in bands called moraines. Some of these moraines formed natural dams across valleys, creating lakes as water collected behind the dam. Such Alpine lakes as the Lake of Lucerne and Lakes Como, Maggiore, Geneva, Constance, and Zurich were created by this process. Today, there are about 1,300 small glaciers in the Alps. The largest, the Aletsch Glacier, is in southern Switzerland. 
Chief ranges of the Alps. 
Most geographers divide the Alpine region into the western, central, and eastern Alps. The western Alps include the ranges west of the Great St. Bernard Pass, which is between northwest Italy and southwest Switzerland. The Savoy, Dauphine, Graian, Cottian, Ligurian, and Maritime Alps are considered western Alps. The central Alps lie between the Great St. Bernard Pass and Lake Constance. They include the Bernese, Pennine, Lepontine, and Rhaetian Alps. The central and western Alps are higher and narrower than the eastern Alps. The eastern Alps begin southeast of Lake Constance and consist of the Bavarian, Noric, and Carnic Alps; Hohe and Niedere Tauern; the Dolomites; and the Julian and Karawanken Alps. 
Climate of the Alps varies from place to place. In general, the Alps have a highlands climate. Such a climate is generally cooler and wetter than that of surrounding areas and is affected by altitude. For example, the higher areas of a mountain range are colder. This results in greater precipitation because cold air cannot hold as much moisture as warm air. 
The Alps separate two distinct climatic regions. The land to the south of the Alps has hot, dry summers and mild, moist winters. The land to the north and to the west has a temperate climate with warm summers, cold winters, and precipitation at all times of the year. 
The Alps frequently experience warm, dry, violent winds, called foehns, that blow downward along mountain slopes. These winds melt snow and ice on the mountainsides, frequently causing avalanches. 
Plant and animal life. 
Various kinds of vegetation grow at different elevations in the Alps. The valleys at the base of the Alps are filled mainly with grass. Beech and oak trees grow on the lower slopes. Fir, pine, and spruce trees cover the higher slopes. Above the timber line, the elevation above which trees cannot grow, are Alpine meadows. Mosses, lichens, bare rock, and ice and snow cover the highest elevations of the Alps. 
Many species of animals live in Alpine forests and meadows. They include the graceful chamois, which resembles the antelope; and the ibex, a rare, long-horned wild goat. Golden eagles and peregrine falcons live among the highest peaks. 
Agriculture and industry.
Most farming is done in the valleys and on the sunny lower slopes of the Alps. Small family-owned farms are most common. The chief crops include such grains as barley, oats, and rye. Traditional Alpine farmers raise cattle, goats, and sheep. Dairy farming is also an important economic activity. 
A variety of industries operate in the foothills and valleys of the Alps. Factories manufacture chemicals, electrical machinery, and other equipment. Traditional handicrafts still produced in the region include shoes and other leather goods, textiles, and ceramics. 
Natural resources found in the Alps include bauxite, iron ore, stone, and timber. Many factories run on hydroelectric power that is generated by waterfalls in the mountains. Hydroelectricity also powers most railroads in the region. Power plants in the Alps transmit some electricity to other parts of Europe. 
Tourism is important to the economy of the Alps. Well-known Alpine resort communities include Chamonix in France, Lucerne and St. Moritz in Switzerland, Berchtesgaden in Germany, Cortina d'Ampezzo in Italy, and Innsbruck and Salzburg in Austria. 
Alpine travel.
More than 40 passes occur naturally in the Alps. Highways and railroads have been built through many of them. The Brenner Pass, 4,508 feet (1,374 meters) high, is the most widely used pass in the eastern Alps. It lies between western Austria and northern Italy and has both a major highway and railroad. 
In addition, tunnels have been built through the mountains beneath several of the passes. The St. Gotthard Road Tunnel in south-central Switzerland is 10.1 miles (16.3 kilometers) long and is the longest highway tunnel in the world. It is part of the St. Gotthard Road, the most-traveled route through the central Alps running between western Germany and Italy. The Simplon Tunnel is the longest railroad tunnel in the Alps. It extends for 12.3 miles (19.8 kilometers) between Switzerland and northwest Italy. The Great St. Bernard Tunnel was the first major highway tunnel to connect Italy and Switzerland. The Frejus Railway Tunnel and the Mont Blanc Road Tunnel link France and Italy. 
Climbing the Alps.
Few people attempted mountaineering in the Alps until the 1700's, when scientists began to study the landforms and the biology of the region. In 1786, two Frenchmen, physician Michel G. Paccard and his guide, Jacques Balmat, became the first to reach the top of Mont Blanc. They recorded scientific observations along the way. 
Many of the Alpine peaks were climbed for the first time during the mid-1800's, when mountaineering gained popularity as a sport. In 1855, a group of Swiss and British men made the first successful climb to the top of Monte Rosa. In 1865, climbers reached the top of the Matterhorn for the first time. Most Alpine summits had been conquered by 1900. Mountain climbing in the Alps became even more popular in the 1900's. Today, professional guides use modern equipment to help people scale the highest peaks. Each year, more than 2,000 people climb to the top of the Matterhorn. 
History.
People have lived in the Alps for thousands of years. By the 500's B.C., Celtic tribes controlled much of the region. From 58 to 15 B.C., the Romans conquered the Alpine Celts. The Romans built roads through various Alpine passes to link Rome with its northern provinces. The roads enabled the Romans to expand their influence into parts of northern Europe. These roads came to rank among the busiest in Europe due to Roman trade with the north. 
Travel in the Alps decreased after the Roman Empire collapsed in the A.D. 400's. But merchants, government officials, religious leaders, and soldiers continued to use Roman roadways to cross the mountains. Through the centuries, the Alpine region came under the control of a number of empires and states. 
During the late 1800's, the first railroads crossed the Alps. This improvement in transportation led to the rapid growth of tourism in the region. Today, travelers can cross the Alps in less than eight hours by highway or railroad. Trans-Alpine routes have increased trade among the Alpine countries and between northern and southern Europe. But environmental pollution and overdevelopment generated by growth in highway traffic and tourism are a concern.